This version of my
“Pre Solo Flight Basics” study notes is from January 1st, 2017. I’ll update this document any time I find the
need to make any changes, and as I continue to progress through additional
training.
I am sharing these
study notes for anyone else who is taking their PPL in Canada. These aren’t intended as a replacement for
proper training; I am only sharing these as a supplement covering many of the
key points that I decided that I really needed to memorize while going through
my PPL studies. The info in these notes comes
from a large number of different sources:
The Transport Canada Flight Training Manual, various flight schools and
instructors (in multiple provinces), and numerous other books and online
sources. These notes are not always in
any particular order, although I tried to keep similar topics together in many
cases.
Please note that
while I have made every effort to ensure that all of the information in these
notes is accurate, based on the sources from which I learned, you should verify
everything here against what you’ve learned in your own study programs. I (Jonathan Clark) shall not assume any
liability for errors or omissions in these notes, and your official pilot
training should always supersede any information presented here. As the Canadian PPL curriculum is updated
occasionally, I recommend that if you want to be 100% certain that everything
in this set of study notes is correct, you should print a copy and ask your
instructor to review these notes with you.
If the aircraft
type is not specified in the notes below, you should always assume that they
refer specifically to characteristics of a Cessna 172M, which is a common
training aircraft, and the type that I have used most frequently. Know the characteristics of your own specific
training/examination aircraft by memory!
Let’s Get Started – Pre Solo Flight
Basics
Aircraft Familiarization
If you’re flying VFR, your attention should be outside
the plane at least 70-80% of the time.
Airspeed Indicator
– Displays the speed going through the air, taking wind into account. Does not correlate to ground speed unless
you’re flying straight and level and there’s no wind.
Attitude Indicator
– Tells the pilot if the aircraft is nose-high or nose-low, and the amount of
bank. This is the most important
instrument for flight in clouds.
Altimeter –
Height above sea level, not above the ground.
Vertical Speed
Indicator – Shows the rate at which the aircraft is climbing or descending,
in feet per minute.
Heading Indicator
– Like a compass, but more stable during manoeuvres. Also known as directional gyro.
Turn Coordinator
– Shows the rate of turn, and can indicate how long it takes to turn 180
degrees. The inclinometer (ball) helps
make sure you’re not slipping or skidding when you’re turning.
Tachometer –
Measures RPM’s.
Other engine gauges:
-
Fuel
-
Oil temperature
-
Oil pressure
-
Fuel flow
-
Exhaust gas temperature
-
Vacuum
-
Anmeter
VOR – Radio
navigation instrument. This is the
primary instrument used to define airways.
ILS – Very sensitive VOR, not in many small aircraft.
ADF – Another radio navigation instrument which is
disappearing from common use. Also known
as the Radio Compass.
COMM – Radio transceiver used for voice communications.
NAV – Radio used for navigation.
Transponder –
Sends out a signal to ATC’s secondary radar, to show where the aircraft
is. If set to ALT, it gives their your
altitude (known as a Mode C transponder).
Other important stuff:
-
Mixture
-
Throttle
-
Trim
-
Flaps
-
Fuel selector
-
Mags
-
Primer
Documents
Remember AROWJIL:
A – Airworthiness
R – Registration
O – Operator’s
Handbook (POH)
W – Weight &
Balance
J – Journey Log
I – Insurance
L – Licenses
(personal, ie. PPL & medical)
Registration of the aircraft doesn’t expire as long as
there is no change in owner, address, or purpose.
Types of insurance:
1.
Public or Third Party Liability – Mandatory,
valid for damage done by the aircraft.
2.
Passenger Liability – Optional for private,
mandatory for commercial.
3.
Hull Insurance – Optional. For damage to the aircraft itself.
Your license is only valid when accompanied by a current
medical.
Radio License is valid for life, as long as you can
talk. Issued by Industry Canada, not by
Transport Canada.
Weights & Balances
See also my ground school study notes.
Every plane has a maximum weight for which it is
certified to take off at. Performance
will also change based on weight distribution.
Standard Empty
Weight – Includes aircraft with standard equipment, oil, and unusable fuel.
Basic Empty Weight
– Includes all optional equipment installed.
Check POH/W&B/exam to double check whether oil is included, as this
can vary from manufacturer to manufacturer.
Useful Load –
Gross takeoff weight less basic empty.
Includes usable fuel, pilot, crew, passengers, baggage, freight.
Maximum Weight
– Weight allowed for takeoff.
Maximum Ramp Weight – Slightly high than Maximum Takeoff
Weight. Allows for a few extra pounds
for ground Manoeuvring, ie. fuel burned during taxi and run-up.
Fuel & Oil Weights:
AVGAS – 6 pounds
per gallon.
JP4 – 6.6 pounds
per gallon.
Oil – 7.5 pounds
per gallon.
Zero Fuel Weight
– Useful load weight but with no usable fuel.
Maximum Zero Fuel Weight – Maximum weight to which
aircraft can be loaded with passengers/baggage/crew before the rest must be
fuel. This is because too much weight in
the fuselage will put too much stress on the wings while in flight when loaded
beyond this value. Weight of fuel in the
wings bends the wings down.
Moment –
Weight multiplied by distance from a reference point or fulcrum.
The fulcrum of an aircraft is located at the Center Of
Lift (Center Of Pressure, CP) on the wing.
Different from the Center Of Gravity (CG), which varies depending on
loading.
Balance Principle – If the CG or the CP changes, then the
elevator force must also change.
Datum Line –
An arbitrarily selected point on the airplane from which all horizontal
distances are measured for weight and balance purposes. Not the same as the fulcrum! Firewall is one such potential point.
Make sure you know on a CG graph which direction is an
“aft” CG and which is a “fore” CG.
An aircraft with a CG in front of the fulcrum (CP) will
want to “nose down”. This is good, it’s
safer. It also cruises more slowly and
is less susceptible to gusts.
You should prepare two weight and balance reports for
each flight! One for takeoff and one for
landing (fuel burned).
As a pilot, you should know whether the CG moves fore or
aft as the fuel is burned.
Normal Category
means non-aerobatic and non-training ops (ie. no spins/spirals), from +3.8 G’s
to -1.5 G’s.
Utility Category
is generally OK for training conditions.
Only do spins when in this category, and only under the supervision of
an instructor.
Walkaround
Walkaround notes:
-
Will probably take a good fifteen minutes or
more on a small plane like a Cessna.
-
Take your time, do it right.
-
Be systematic.
Have a routine.
-
You will check the entire exterior, some things
in the interior, and fluids.
-
Never rush this or skip things.
Ancillary Controls
Never taxi with carb heat on, because the air is then
unfiltered going into the carb.
Carb Ice forms
inside the carburetor, whereas Impact
Ice forms on the outside of the airplane, on the air intake filter.
The engine burns more fuel with carb heat on. You’ll have less power too.
There is a temperature drop in a carb venturi for two
reasons:
-
Decrease in pressure (Bernoulli’s principle).
-
Fuel is vaporized, which takes heat from the
surroundings.
MOGAS is much more susceptible to carb icing than AVGAS.
Know the difference between carb and throttle icing. Throttle ice is the same concept as carb
icing, but occurs on the throttle plate.
Usually occurs when the throttle is only partly open, hence the reason
some manufacturers recommend carb heat to fix the problem, if operating below
the green arc on the tach.
In a Cessna, always use carb heat when running at less
than 2100 rpm.
Throttle adds air.
Mixture adds fuel.
A richer mix (more fuel) cools the engine.
As an aircraft climbs, the air density decreases and the
fuel/air mix becomes more rich.
EGT Gauge – The proper fuel/air mix will produce a given
exhaust gas temperature, therefore, the pilot can adjust the fuel/air mix
fairly accurately by observing the EGT gauge.
Environmental Controls – Vents and heat for pilot
comfort.
Taxiing
Goals:
-
Taxi centered on the yellow lines!
-
While taxing, have controls in the proper
position (ie. ailerons centered or set to account for winds).
-
Know the list of standards expected on a flight
test.
-
Always do a brake test right away.
-
Hold back pressure, if needed, to keep the nose
up.
Differential
Braking – Braking only on one side to help a turn.
Learn your marshalling
signals. They won’t be on the flight
test, but you need to learn them.
Control positions in Quartering
Winds:
-
Elevator neutral if wind is from the front,
elevator down if behind.
-
Ailerons into wind if wind is from the front, or
away from wind if from behind.
-
Use “left thumb parallel to wind direction to/from”
as a rule, if you need.
Attitudes & Movements
Attitude + Power = Performance
Attitude –
Position of the airplane with reference to the horizon.
Movements –
How controls are manipulated to achieve various attitudes.
Basic cruise in a Cessna 172 is 2200 rpm, around 105-110
knots.
Basic Attitudes:
-
Cruise (pitch)
-
Nose Up (pitch)
-
Nose Down (pitch)
-
Banked (roll)
Types of Adverse
Yaw:
1.
Aileron
Drag – Drag on the down aileron (raised wing) will attempt to pull or veer
the airplane’s nose in the direction of the raised wing, which is the opposite
direction of what is desired. This is
the only type of adverse yaw that is caused by the ailerons.
2.
Gyroscopic
Precession – Created by the propeller, which usually rotates clockwise from
the pilot’s perspective. Nose down yaw
left, nose up yaws right.
3.
Torque
– Twisting of the fuselage caused by the propeller. Makes the airplane want to roll to the left.
4.
Slipstream
– Airflow corkscrews around the fuselage.
Tends to force the tail right (nose left).
5.
Asymetric
Thrust – Related to “bite” of propeller when not vertical. Results in a tendency for the airplane to yaw
around the vertical axis to the left.
Straight and Level Flight
Learn to use the trim wheel properly to control the
plane’s attitude. You should be able to
let go of the control column and have the plane fly at the correct attitude if
the trim is set correctly.
In a Cessna 172, a change in power of 100 rpm usually
translates into a change in speed of about 5 knots.
To increase the airspeed, you need to push the nose
down. But if you want to presumably
maintain straight and level flight, you should first add power then push the
nose slightly down to compensate, so you don’t just start climbing.
There is a huge difference in fuel consumption between
2000 and 2400 rpm, with 2400 burning 50% more fuel.
Climbing
Climbing speeds
for a Cessna 172:
VY –
Best rate, 88mph
VX –
Best Angle, 68mph (or 65mph at 10 degrees flaps)
VS0 –
Stall Speed, flaps extended, 40mph
VS1 –
Stall Speed, flaps retracted, 49mph
VR –
Rotation, varies from say 52 to 58mph approximately
VA –
Design Manoeuvring Speed, 112mph calibrated, 115mph indicated
Max Crosswind is 17mph.
For going into a climb AND coming out of a climb, remember APT.
A -
Attitude
P -
Power
T -
Trim
Remember to do a lookout first.
In a climb, torque and asymmetric thrust will combine to
produce a moderate roll and yaw to the left.
You must counteract with some right rudder pressure.
Winds change the steepness of a climb, but not the rate.
Your engine can overheat if a steep climb is
maintained. Pay close attention to oil
temperature and pressure. Pause the
climb if necessary.
Hotter temperature and higher altitude and higher
humidity makes it harder to climb.
Descents
Always do your lookout first.
Reduce power first, then attitude, then trim. This applies both at the start of the descent and also when coming out. Remember PAT.
P –
Power
A –
Attitude
T –
Trim
Types of descents:
-
Power On, En Route – most speed across the
ground, shallow
-
Power On, Approach – slower, still fairly
shallow
-
Power Off, Best Glide – coming in at 80mph
(Cessna 172)
En Route – This descent features the highest
groundspeed. Set power to 2200 rpm. High air speed (X axis), low rate of descent
(Y). Attitude is slightly forward.
Approach – Power is 1500 rpm. Speed is about 80 mph. Standard for landings.
Best Glide –
Engine has stopped. To practice, move
the throttle to full idle, pitch up, then trim about three times. Set the attitude for 80 mph before trim.
Essentially, when descending, the power (throttle)
affects your rate of descent, and pitch affects airspeed. They are actually slightly interrelated, but
you can use this basic assumption to get started.
Any time the power goes below the green arc on the
tachometer, you must add carb heat.
With a lengthy power-off descent, clear the engine
occasionally by giving it a few seconds of throttle.
The rate and angle of descent are primarily affected by
power/throttle, but are also somewhat affected by attitude/pitch, wind
direction and speed, flap settings, gear setting, and density altitude.
Flaps will change the steepness AND rate of descent.
Putting flaps down makes your nose pitch up, so you need
to pitch forward to counteract this.
Flaps, if used properly, should not reduce your airspeed.
Turns
Classes of turns:
Gentle are less
than 15 degrees
Medium are 15 to
30 degrees
Steep are greater
than 30 degrees
Posture in a turn – Do not lean with the turn, or tilt
your head. That makes you more likely to
feel nauseated.
Always do a lookout
before entering a turn.
Entry into a turn:
1.
Lookout.
2.
Roll into bank:
ailerons deflected, then neutral.
3.
Rudder to coordinate and control yaw.
4.
Back pressure as required.
5.
Lookout again.
Goals in a turn:
-
Nose moves steadily and stays level on the
horizon.
-
Constant airspeed.
-
Turn coordinator shows constant rate of turn.
-
Ball is centered.
-
Altimeter is steady.
-
VSI remains steady.
Too much rudder in a turn (in the direction of the turn)
produces a skid. Too little is a
slip. Keep the ball in the middle.
Slips are safer than skids, but you should still avoid
them unless you’re attempting an intentional slip.
For a skid, think of a loose article on the dash. If it slides in a turn, away from the
direction of the turn, you are skidding.
Also, think of the tail swinging to the outside of the turn.
Slips are sometimes done on purpose. Skids can be unsafe and are never done. A skid could sometimes lead to a spin, which
is very dangerous.
Steep turns are normally practiced at 45 degrees. Practical applications are limited almost
always to emergency situations or canyon turns.
On a flight test, for your steep turn, you need to keep:
-
Attitude within 100’
-
Speed within 10 knots
-
Bank within 10 degrees
-
Rollout to heading within 10 degrees
“CALL” Check:
-
Cabin – belts, gauges, cabin secure
-
Altitude – recovery by 2000’ AGL
-
Location – orientation, not over built up areas
-
Lookout – look up, down, around
“HASEL” Check:
-
Height – recovery by 2000’ AGL
-
Area – not over cloud, water, built up areas
-
Security – belts, cabin secure
-
Engine – oil temp and pressure green, carb heat
on
-
Lookout – one 180o turn or two 90o
turns
Entry into a steep
turn:
1.
CALL check or HASEL check
2.
Fix on a landmark
3.
Roll into turn
4.
Pitch up to maintain altitude at 30o
of bank
5.
Add a bit of power to maintain airspeed (maybe
50-100 rpm)
Key instruments to scan:
1.
Airspeed (stable)
2.
Altitude (stable)
3.
Attitude (45o)
Recovery:
1.
Begin rollout early (one half the number of the
bank angle)
2.
Rudder as needed
3.
Reduce back pressure on the control column as
loading comes off
4.
Reduce power to cruise
Load Factor –
Ratio of the load on the wings to the aircraft’s weight.
A higher load factor leads to a higher stall speed. So avoid steep turns at low speeds when
you’re close to the ground, ie. on approach for landing.
Common errors on Steep Turns:
-
Forgetting to look out.
-
Overbanking.
-
Pulling back in an overbank (reduce bank first).
-
Spiral dives.
-
Insufficient power.
-
Failing to roll out in anticipation of proper
heading.
-
Ballooning (gaining altitude on roll out).
-
Uncoordination.
Slow Flight
Slow flight is that airspeed range above the stall speed,
but below the speed for maximum endurance (best glide, 80pmh in a Cessna 172).
Practicing slow flight helps you avoid stalls, and makes
you better at handling and controlling the aircraft. You go through slow flight whenever you take
off or land.
Slow flight is
an important flight test item.
Learning an overshoot,
and recovery from slow flight, are both very important.
To enter slow
flight:
-
CALL check or HASEL check.
-
Carb heat on.
-
Reduce power to say between 1500 and 1700 rpm.
-
Raise nose to maintain attitude.
-
Put power back in (to maintain altitude) once
airspeed reaches desired speed. Maybe
1900 to 2000 rpm.
-
Trim it out.
-
Lookout.
If you start to gain a bit of altitude in slow flight
because you added back too much power, it’s far easier to shed power than it
would have been to get that altitude back because you didn’t add enough power.
You might need some right rudder in slow flight.
If you’re in slow flight and an examiner asked you to
slow down even more, you can put the flaps down.
During slow flight, as in descents, your pitch controls
your airspeed.
Recovery from Slow Flight:
1.
Add full power.
2.
Watch out, as the nose will begin to pitch up.
3.
Watch out, as the plane will yaw to the left.
4.
Carb heat cold.
5.
Flaps up, but do it in stages if you start out
with more than 20 degrees of flaps.
6.
After reaching cruise speed, reduce power to
2200.
7.
Trim.
8.
Look out.
Common Errors during Slow Flight:
1.
Forgetting your CALL or HASEL check.
2.
Not adding power quickly enough (loss of
altitude).
3.
Right rudder is not correct.
4.
Lack of coordination during turns.
5.
Not putting flaps down during slower speeds.
6.
Having a harder time turning right versus left.
Common Errors during Recovery:
1.
Not pitching forward as power is applied.
2.
Not corrective for adverse yaw.
3.
Forgetting to raise flaps.
4.
Forgetting to remove carb heat.
Stalls
A stall is a
loss of lift and increase in drag that occurs when an aircraft is flown at an
angle of attack that is greater than the angle for maximum lift, ie. when you
lose smooth airflow over the wing.
Angle of Attack
is what determines the stall.
A stall can occur at any airspeed, in any attitude, and
with any power setting.
Two main types of stalls are Power On and Power Off. You will have to demonstrate both of these on
a flight test.
When recovering from stalls, go carb heat cold and power
full, then climb at VY. Lift
gear and flaps, if appropriate, then trim.
Entry into Power Off Stall:
1.
CALL check or HASEL check.
2.
Carb heat hot.
3.
Power off.
4.
Rudder as required to maintain directional
control.
5.
Gradually increase elevator back pressure to
full, while maintaining altitude.
Three signs of an approaching stall:
1.
Slow flight characteristics appear.
2.
Stall warning buzzer.
3.
Buffeting.
At any time during a stall, the airplane (if a Cessna)
will recover instantly if you let go of the controls. So don’t be too nervous when practicing
stalls, as long as you have sufficient altitude.
Recovery:
1.
Reduce elevator back pressure.
2.
Allow the aircraft to dive and speed up.
3.
Add power as required.
4.
When the airplane is flying, pull out of the
dive smoothly.
5.
When safe, pitch gently for a climbing attitude.
Power On Stall:
1.
Follow steps for Power Off Stall.
2.
Directional control may be more difficult.
3.
Nose will have to be raised higher to initiate
stall.
4.
At the stall, a pitch forward is more
pronounced.
5.
Wing drop is much more likely. If it happens, use abrupt opposite rudder and
NO ailerons.
Never apply power when recovering from a stall if the
nose is pointed below the horizon! That
could just accelerate you into the ground at a low altitude.
Types of Stalls:
1.
Power On
2.
Power Off
3.
Secondary stall
4.
Imminent stall
5.
Accelerated stall
Power off stalls are normally practiced as normal landing
approach conditions in simulation of an accidental stall occurring during
landing approaches. They should be
practiced with multiple flap settings.
Try to be at normal approach speed (80 mph) before initiating entry.
Practice Power On stalls at various flaps and power
settings, including full power.
Secondary Stall
– Happens when you make an incomplete or improper recovery from a stall,
perhaps by pulling back too hard. To
avoid, don’t pull up during stall recovery until the aircraft has reached at
least best rate of climb speed (88 mph) before slowly raising pitch.
Imminent Stall
– The airplane is approaching a stall but is not allowed to completely stall.
Airplanes can go into a stall at higher-than-normal
airspeeds when excessive loads are imposed by abrupt or strong manoeuvres.
Mushing –
Falling to the ground (like a leaf) with insufficient airflow over the wings to
create lift.
Falling Leaf Exercise:
-
Enter the stall, allow it to continue by holding
the control column aft.
-
Let the airplane mush.
-
Careful rudder work is necessary to prevent wing
drop.
-
Airplane will oscillate in pitch as it tries to
recover.
-
Do this with an instructor.
Things that affect stall speed:
1.
Weight and balance.
2.
Power.
3.
Flaps.
4.
Bank angle.
5.
Aircraft condition.
6.
Retractable landing gear.
Common errors:
-
Forgetting the CALL or HASEL check.
-
Not even stalling.
-
Holding the control column back during the
stall.
-
Pushing too hard forward.
-
Entering a secondary stall.
-
Stepping on the wrong rudder.
-
Touching the aileron during a wing drop. This is the biggest problem.
-
Exceeding VFE in a dive with the
flaps extended.
The biggest problem is using the ailerons to counter wing
drop. You must learn to do it hands-off,
and react with the rudder only.
Spins
Spin – A stall
that has been aggravated by yaw. This
results in an “autorotation” where the plane follows a corkscrew path (60o
of nose down attitude) in a downward direction.
In a spin, the wings are producing some lift and the
airplane is forced downward by gravity, wallowing and yawing in a spiral
path. This pattern results from the fact
that one wing is more stalled than the other.
There is no practical application for a spin in normal
flight. The only reasons we practice
them are for recognition, avoidance, and recovery.
Three Stages of a Spin:
1.
Incipient stage
2.
Fully Developed stage
3.
Recovery stage
How to Enter a Spin:
1.
CALL check or HASEL check.
2.
Carb heat hot.
3.
Power to idle.
4.
Gradually apply full back pressure on elevator.
5.
Go full rudder left or right, just as the
aircraft stalls.
6.
Keep the control column fully aft, plus full
rudder.
If you partially relax either input in step six, your
spin may turn into a spiral dive!
Cessnas are very stable and resistant to entering a
spin. You really have to screw up to
enter a spin by mistake.
Characteristics During a Spin:
-
Can be quite disorienting.
-
Aircraft will be in a sixty degree nose down
attitude, rotating around its vertical axis.
-
You’ll probably see all ground through the
windshield, no sky.
-
Airspeed will read as low, but not below the
stall.
-
Altimeter shows descending altitude.
-
Gyros may topple due to excessive rotation on
multiple axis.
-
Inclinometer ball is useless.
-
The low wing in the turn coordinator shows the
direction of the spin.
Ironically, for many airplanes, if you let go of the
controls, the airplane will recover on its own.
You should still learn proper recovery procedures for safety.
How to Recover
from a Spin:
1.
Relax.
2.
Power to idle.
3.
Ailerons neutral.
4.
Ensure flaps retracted.
5.
Full opposite rudder.
6.
Gentle forward pressure on the control column.
7.
Hold until auto rotation stops.
8.
Neutralize rudder.
9.
Roll wings level using ailerons.
10.
Ease out of the resulting dive.
External Factors:
-
Power On makes a spin flatter and faster.
-
Flaps make a spin flatter, and can result in
structural damage.
-
CG location:
aft is bad as it makes it harder to recover.
-
Higher weight increases the spin’s inertia.
The most likely way to enter a spin accidentally would be
by turning with too much bank using rudder only, on the turn to final. It could also happen during an improper
overshoot or an improper departure procedure.
Common Spin Practice errors:
1.
Not stalling, which leads to a spiral.
2.
Wrong way rudder.
3.
Not releasing the back pressure.
4.
Not relaxing the rudder pressure as the rotation
stops.
5.
Leaving the flaps down.
Spiral Dives
Spiral Dive –
A steep descending turn in which the airspeed, rate of descent, and wing
loading increase rapidly. Far more
dangerous than a spin.
We learn about spiral dives and practice them for
recognition, avoidance, and recovery.
This is a flight test item.
Never enter a spiral intentionally while solo! It’s too dangerous. You should only do it when the instructor is
with you and has initiated the dive.
Accidental Entry:
1.
A steep turn where the nose is allowed to drop
excessively.
2.
An attempted spin where the airplane didn’t
actually enter the spin, but the nose was allowed to drop and the airspeed
built up.
3.
When busy in the cockpit with other chores.
4.
When becoming disoriented during instrument
flying.
5.
After losing the vacuum instruments.
Characteristics:
-
Airspeed rapidly increasing.
-
High rate of descent.
-
Steep bank angle.
A plane in a spiral may descend as quickly as 18,000 feet/minute.
Recovery:
1.
Throttle to idle.
2.
Wings level.
Aileron IS allowed, because you’re flying.
3.
Ease out of the dive.
Each of these steps must be completed separately and
promptly.
Common Errors:
1.
Adding power, which is really dumb. You’re flying at the ground. You don’t want to speed up.
2.
Not using three separate motions for
recovery. The three steps can NOT be
combined.
Slips
Slip – The
aircraft is placed in a banked attitude, but its tendency to turn is controlled
with the rudder. The turn is then
halted.
Why learn slips?
1.
Counteract the effect of drift that is caused by
a crosswind during landing.
2.
Increase the rate of descent without increasing
the airspeed.
3.
Used to align with something.
4.
It’s a flight test item.
Types of Slips:
1.
Side Slip
2.
Forward Slip
3.
Slipping Turn (a type of forward slip)
Side Slip:
-
Useful to stay lined up with a particular
direction of motion (ie. runway centerline) during a cross wind.
-
The longitudinal axis of the plane stays in line
with the target.
Entering a Side Slip:
1.
Lower a wing and apply just enough opposite
rudder to prevent a turn.
2.
The airplane’s longitudinal axis remains
parallel to the original flight path, but the airplane no longer flies
“straight ahead.”
3.
From behind, it looks as if the airplane is
aimed straight at the runway, but the plane has rolled partway.
4.
The aircraft will be in a banked attitude as
shown on the turn coordinator, but not turning.
5.
Airspeed and altimeter will have errors due to
the position of the static port.
Forward Slip:
-
One in which the airplane’s direction of motion
continues the same as before the slip was begun.
-
Assuming that the airplane is originally in a
straight flight, the wing on the side toward which the slip is to be made
should be lowered by use of the ailerons.
-
Simultaneously, the airplane’s nose must be
yawed in the opposite direction by applying opposite rudder. This means that the longitudinal axis is at
an angle to its original flight path.
Entering a Forward
Slip:
1.
Use ailerons to bank into the wind.
2.
Apply opposite rudder to prevent a turn.
3.
Adjust the pitch gently forward to maintain the
original attitude. The airspeed will
have an error, so fly the attitude.
4.
Stay in line with the runway centerline by
adjusting aileron.
5.
Be prepared to pitch your nose down slightly.
If you’re having problems distinguishing the two slips,
remember the “opposites” rule: a pilot
“faces” to the side in a forward slip, and forward in a side slip.
Recovering from a slip:
1.
Release the rudder pressure.
2.
Simultaneously level the wings.
3.
Adjust pitch and trim.
Slip vs. Skid:
-
In a slipping turn, the tail of the airplane and
the ball of the inclinometer are on the inside of the turn.
-
In a skidding turn, the tail and the ball are on
the outside of the turn.
-
Skids can lead to spins, especially when
descending. Very bad!
Slipping Turn
– Put yourself into either a side slip or a forward slip, then add just a
little bit of aileron.
Common Errors:
-
Entering a skid.
-
Changing the pitch attitude. Remember that the airspeed indicator is lying
to you.
-
Showing/doing the wrong type of slip.
-
Slipping the wrong way. It’s best to have the low wing into the wind.
Slips feel strange to passengers, so it might be nice to
warn them in advance.
Takeoffs
Takeoffs are always optional. You may have less discretion with a landing
though.
Takeoff – The
transition from taxiing to flying. It
includes the activities immediately before and after liftoff.
Takeoff as nearly into the wind as possible, if it’s a
normal takeoff.
Benefits of taking off into the wind:
-
Shorter ground roll, so less runway is required.
-
Lower ground speed after liftoff.
-
Steeper climb rate, so better for clearing
obstacles.
-
Lack of side drift and shorter takeoff roll
means less wear and stress on wheels and landing gear.
-
Greater directional control.
-
Proper circuit procedures will be followed.
If the speed of the wind at ground level is greater than
the aircraft’s stalling speed, a parked airplane will fly on its own. Never forget the tie-downs.
Procedures for
Takeoff:
1.
Ensure preflight checks are complete.
2.
Have a Go/No-Go point ready.
3.
Do you know emergency procedures?
4.
Flaps?
Either none or 10o.
Beyond 10o, the flaps create more drag than lift.
5.
Know wind speed and direction. Know what this translates into as a head wind
and a cross wind. Check the wind sock to
verify your METAR and ATIS info.
6.
Check traffic.
7.
Align aircraft with runway center line.
8.
Control column neutral, although perhaps
ailerons set for crosswind.
9.
Applying throttle fully but smoothly, not too
abruptly.
10.
Right rudder may be required.
11.
Rotate around 60mph (Cessna 172). Do it gently.
Let the airplane go up on its own.
12.
Climb, establishing an attitude that gives you
about 88mph (Cessna 172).
13.
Retract flaps when safe.
14.
Climb straight ahead to 500’ AGL.
For a Go/No-Go point, one rule that may be useful is the
70/50 guideline. If you don’t have at
least 70% of your required takeoff speed by the middle of the runway length,
you should abort.
Air density is affected by pressure, temperature, and
humidity. Think of it this way: Height, heat, and humidity make it harder to
take off.
Lift and drag vary directly with the density of the air.
The density of air at 18,000 feet is half that of sea
level.
Crosswind Takeoffs
Crosswind Takeoff
– Any time the wind blows at any angle that crosses the runway.
Make sure you maintain a straight path down the runway
centerline.
Challenges affecting Directional Control:
1.
Weathercocking (Keel Effect) – airplane wants to
swing into the wind.
2.
Dihedral – shape of wing.
3.
Windward Wing – has more airflow, making it want
to lift.
4.
Sideways Drift – from wind pushing against
fuselage.
Keel Effect –
Airplane has more surface area behind the main wheels than ahead of them,
causing the airplane to yaw into the wind.
You’ll need to counter with some opposite rudder.
Positive Dihedral
– The “into wind” wing will have a greater angle of attack than the other wing,
which generates lift and rolls the plane.
Use some aileron to counter.
Focus here on the shape of the wing being the cause.
Windward Wing
Airflow – The “into wind” wing will have more airflow because it isn’t
blocked by the fuselage. This also lifts
the wing and rolls the plane, so add aileron.
Focus here on the fuselage as a wind blocker to one wing.
Sideways Drift
– As well as wanting to rotate the plane, the wind tends to push the entire
plane sideways, putting strain on the landing gear. This will be partially offset with the proper
amount of aileron input.
Crosswind Takeoff
Procedures:
1.
Try to take off into the prevailing winds.
2.
Have ailerons fully deflected into the wind.
3.
Slowly reduce aileron deflection to neutral as
you build speed on the takeoff roll.
4.
Apply rudder as needed to stay on the runway
centerline.
5.
Go for a slightly more abrupt and definitive
liftoff than usual, and at a slightly higher speed (perhaps 65 mph in a Cessna
172).
6.
Don’t let the aircraft settle back onto the
runway.
7.
Crab into the wind after liftoff to keep the
flight path aligned with the runway centerline.
Try to avoid using flaps on a crosswind takeoff.
Crosswind components are determined by the sine of the
angle of degrees deflection. To
simplify, use the following chart:
00o
wind angle = 00.0% crosswind component
10o
wind angle = 17.4% crosswind component
20o
wind angle = 34.2% crosswind component
30o
wind angle = 50.0% crosswind component
40o
wind angle = 64.3% crosswind component
50o
wind angle = 76.6% crosswind component
60o
wind angle = 86.6% crosswind component
70o
wind angle = 94.0% crosswind component
80o
wind angle = 98.5% crosswind component
90o
wind angle = 100% crosswind component
An even more basic and approximate guide is this: Use the “minute hand of a clock” as a
percentage rule, which works pretty well as a rough guide. Ie. 10 degrees use 10 minutes which is 1/6th. 15 degrees use 15 minutes which is 1/4th. 30 degrees use 30 minutes which is ½. 45 degrees use 45 minutes which is ¾. Above that use 90%.
In the absence of a published number, all aircraft must
be certified to a minimum of 20% of the stall speed for a crosswind limitation.
Common errors on
Crosswind Takeoff:
-
No control inputs at all.
-
Too much or not enough aileron down into the
wind.
-
Too much or not enough rudder to stay lined up
with the centerline.
-
Weak liftoff that results in settling back down
onto the runway.
-
Not crabbing properly to maintain a straight
track after takeoff.
Landing
Landing – The transition from flying to settling down
safely on the runway, including the approach.
Three phases:
-
Approach
-
Level Off
-
Flare
One of the keys to a good landing is a stable
approach. It’s best to have everything
(power, attitude/speed, flaps, trim) set up well before final. Try to have it set up by “half base.”
Steps to follow when about to turn base:
1.
Carb heat hot.
2.
Power to 1500.
3.
Pitch up a bit (close to cruise).
4.
Trim down three times.
5.
Pitch to 80 mph.
6.
Flaps, if necessary.
If you feel a bit low on base, simply add a touch of
power. It’s easier to add a bit of power
when low than to quickly shed altitude.
Three solutions when Approach is High:
-
Reduce power.
-
Add flaps.
-
Forward slip.
Bloom Effect –
When the threshold area seems to rapidly expand, and many suddenly get the
feeling that the ground is suddenly approaching so rapidly that something must
be done about it.
Control in the Flare:
-
Rudders keep you pointed the right way.
-
Ailerons keep you from drifting.
Steps for Landing:
1.
Power to 1500 rpm, slow down.
2.
Flaps, if required.
3.
Trim.
4.
Turn final, align with runway.
5.
Establish a glide path to the runway.
6.
Keep airplane in trim to the flare (try not to
touch trim on final though, should have been set properly in base).
7.
Reduce power to idle once runway is ensured.
8.
Flare, but not too abruptly! You should level out and float for a bit, and
flare once you start to sink.
Recovery from a Bounce
or Balloon:
1.
Maintain the landing attitude.
2.
When starting to settle again, add a bit of
power if necessary.
3.
If it’s bad, add power and overshoot. If you do this, avoid excessive pitch up.
Types of Training
Approaches:
1.
Low & Over.
2.
Stop & Go.
3.
Touch & Go.
4.
Overshooting.
Low & Over – A normal approach, but instead of
flaring and then landing, power will be added to maintain approximately flaring
height. Good practice for approaches
without actually landing.
Stop & Go – Aircraft will come to a complete stop,
then after a brief pause, the takeoff will be initiated from the same position.
Touch & Go – Normal approach and landing, but then
add power and take off again without stopping.
This exercise allows the most practice takeoffs and landings in an hour.
Overshoot – Start approach, but instead of landing, add
power and climb out.
Overshoot
Procedures:
1.
Full power, smoothly not abruptly.
2.
Carb heat cold.
3.
Go to climb attitude.
4.
Retract flaps if they are set to more than ten
degrees.
5.
Don’t climb above circuit height.
Learn to always keep your right hand on the throttle
during landings and takeoffs. You can
fly with just your left hand on the control column.
Crosswind Landings
A crosswind
landing is a landing with wind coming from any side. It is harder than a crosswind takeoff because
the aircraft is becoming less controllable as it slows down, rather than more
controllable.
Be aware that the winds may be a different direction and
strength upon landing than when you took off, even when doing circuits.
Main Crosswind Landing Techniques:
1.
Crab & Kick.
2.
Slipping (also called Wing Low).
3.
Combination.
Crab Method –
Crab into the wind with wings perfectly level so the airplane’s ground track
remains aligned with the centerline of the runway. Straight out with a rudder kick at the last
second. After the rudder kick, bank
slightly into the wind with the ailerons, to stop the rolling tendency from the
rudder input. Airspeed should be
slightly higher than for normal landings.
As a student/learning pilot, the crab landing is not the
safest or easiest option. The kick needs
to be perfectly timed.
Wing Low –
Touching down in a side slip. The pilot
aligns the airplane’s heading with the centerline of the runway, notes the rate
and direction of drift, then promptly applies drift correction by lowering the
upwind wing. Drift is controlled with
aileron, and heading with rudder.
Once you touch down with wing low, don’t release control
inputs. You’ll be slowing down, which
means that controls become less responsive, so you actually have to start
increasing aileron. Remember that when
taxiing with a crosswind, you deflect the ailerons fully.
In a long final, it may be beneficial to do a crab until
just before the roundabout is started, and then smoothly change to a sideslip
for the remainder of the landing.
In a strong crosswind, the plane would obviously have to
be banked quite steeply, which of course means heavy rudder. Some airplanes might not be technically
capable of that much rudder. If full
opposite rudder will not prevent a turn, the wind is too strong to safely land
the airplane on that particular runway with those wind conditions.
If crosswinds are too strong for a safe landing, and no
alternate runways are available, it might even be necessary to go to an
alternate airport.
Flaps can and should be used during most approaches since
they tend to have a stabilizing effect on the airplane. However, you would typically use less flaps
with a crosswind. Full flaps may be used
as long as the crosswind component is not in excess of the airplane’s
capability, or unless the manufacturer recommends otherwise.
Ground Roll:
-
Pay close attention while rolling: the rudder for steering is independent of the
aileron being used to keep the wing low into the wind.
-
When the plane is airborne, it moves with the
air mass in which it is flying, regardless of heading and speed. On the ground, the friction of the wheels
prevents that.
-
The airplane wants to weathercock into the wind
because it has a greater profile or side area behind the main landing gear than
forward of it.
CRFI –
Canadian Runway Friction Index, gives the braking effectiveness of a surface.
At times, a surface covered with ice, snow, or water will
not allow a safe landing. Check a CFRI
chart to determine the CRFI crosswind limits.
These can be independent of the plane’s maximum demonstrated crosswind
component.
Common Errors during Crosswind Landings:
-
Attempting to land in crosswinds that exceed the
airplane’s max demonstrated crosswind component.
-
Inadequate compensation for wind drift on the
turn from base leg to final approach, resulting in undershooting or overshooting.
-
Inadequate compensation for wind drift on final
approach.
-
Unstabilized approach.
-
Failure to compensate for increased drag during
side slip, resulting in excessive sink rate and/or too low an airspeed.
-
Touchdown while drifting.
-
Overly excessive airspeed on touchdown.
-
Forgetting about increased distances.
-
Failure to use correct control inputs during
rollout.
-
Letting go when you land (you need more control
authority, not less, as you slow down).
Losing control in a cross wind is the most common landing
accident.
Circuits
Circuit – The
specified path to be flown in the vicinity of an aerodrome.
Circuit Features:
-
The circuit provides pilots with organization
and standardization, like traffic rules.
-
A well flown circuit will lead to a stable approach.
-
Incorporate climb, cruise, and descent, so
they’re where you’ll really learn to fly.
-
Left hand circuits are usually the international
standard.
-
Typical circuit height is 1000 feet above ground
level, although this can vary. Always
check the CFS.
-
Americans call the circuit “the pattern.”
Do a good lookout at each turn on the circuit.
Typical spacing between the runway and the downwind leg
is about one mile.
Power settings
(in an ideal world):
-
Full throttle on departure and crosswind.
-
2200 rpm on downwind.
-
1500 turning base.
Radio calls at
an Uncontrolled Airport:
1.
Shortly after airborne.
2.
When turning from departure onto circuit.
3.
On downwind.
4.
On final.
5.
When you have exited runway.
Departing an Uncontrolled Circuit:
-
Leave the circuit, go any direction. Probably not preferred to go left (on a left
hand circuit) in case there are arriving aircraft coming straight in downwind.
-
Turn back that goes toward the circuit should
not be initiated until you’re at least 500 feet above aerodrome elevation.
-
Try to use the runway most closely aligned to
being into the wind.
Joining an Uncontrolled Circuit:
-
From upwind side, funnel into a point where you
can cross the airport at midfield and join the circuit on downwind (best
option).
-
Can join straight in downwind if no conflict
exists.
-
Can cross field if 500’ above circuit height,
and then descend to circuit height, crossing back at that height to join the
circuit. If you follow this procedure,
do your initial teardrop turn away from the wind, so the majority of your
teardrop is then into the wind.
Joining the Circuit at an MF (Mandatory Frequency)
Airport:
-
Aircraft may join the circuit straight in to
downwind, 45o to downwind, or straight in to base or final.
-
Be alert for other VFR aircraft entering from
any of these positions, or for IFR straight in or circling approaches.
-
You may have a FSS giving you information about
weather and about traffic in the circuit.
-
Be careful because an aircraft could, against
the rules, come into an MF airport with no radio.
-
If the MF airport has no advisory info
available, treat it as an uncontrolled airport for joining the circuit.
No matter what type of airfield, if doing continuous
circuits, you should always climb to circuit height after each takeoff before
turning onto downwind.
At a controlled airport, there are a large number of ways
to join the circuit, depending on what the controller tells you:
-
From the upwind funnel, crossing the field at
circuit height, and joining downwind.
-
Straight in downwind.
-
45o onto downwind.
-
Straight in base.
-
Straight in final.
Never cross the aerodrome from the downwind side unless
you are at least 500’ above the circuit.
Remember that aircraft could be crossing in the other direction at
circuit height, to join the circuit.
If crossing from upwind to join the circuit, you should
be at circuit height and also, you should join the downwind leg at a point
abeam the midpoint of the active runway.
RONLY – Radio device with receive capabilities only.
NORDO/RONLY Arrivals:
-
At a controlled airport, approach the circuit
from the upwind side only, join the crosswind at circuit height, then join the
circuit on the downwind leg.
-
Know your PSTAR light signals.
-
Transponder code 7600.
-
You may be able to call the tower on a cell
phone using the number published in the CFS.
If you are cleared by an ATC as “Cleared to the Circuit,”
then you must join the downwind leg at circuit height, or possibly crosswind
then downwind.
Common Errors during Circuits:
-
Not seeing or being aware of traffic.
-
Improper joining procedures.
-
Very tight spacing.
-
Very wide spacing.
-
Not on frequency.
-
Missing that a circuit is non-standard.
-
Not correcting for winds.
The topics included in a study of pre-solo flight basics
have a greater scope than I’ve covered here.
It would also be wise to spend quite a bit of time studying the various
publications that I’ve linked to on this page:
http://www.djbolivia.ca/aviation.html
I have links there to several additional flight training
related publications.
Thanks for reading,
I hope this was helpful to pilots in training.
If you find any errors in the above information, feel free to contact me
at jonathan.scooter.clark@gmail.com
Jonathan Clark
I'm Jonathan Clark, known online as DJ Bolivia. Do you want to learn more about DJ'ing and music production? If so, visit:
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